Pagan Offerings

"The Vestal" by Corcos (1900)

Note that I revised this post in 2026 as in all honesty I tend to think it is better for most people to avoid making offerings to the Gods because, for a great many people, for a great many differing reasons, it will not bring benefit. 

Nonetheless, the historical practices of our pre-Christian European ancestors deserve to be understood (based on reliable sources) so, as I have researched the topic so heavily over many years, I offer the information up below from that perspective. My main source was Ovid's Fasti, as well as other ancient sources such as Cato, Livy, Virgil, Petronius, Tibullus and Horace (their writings are available for free on various websites). I also sourced from books written by contemporary scholars, most especially Beard, North and Price, Religions of Rome (Cambridge University Press).

Typical offerings

The types of offerings ancient Romans and Germanics typically made included things such as:

• Food – symbolically offered on a plate before an image or symbol of a deity, or burnt in a ritual fire, or left in a sacred location, or hidden in a sacred tree, or thrown into sacred water.
• Fire – for a simple or preliminary show of reverence a flame was lit in a sacred location.
• Incense (note that frankincense was the most popular incense used in ritual offerings in ancient Rome). For an in depth look at incense as an offering, including issues relating to health, see my post on Incense – Offerings to the Gods.
• Aromatic herbs (juniper, laurel, rosemary, thyme, etc).
• Flowers.
• Spices, especially Indian spices (ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, cumin, saffron, etc).
• Wine, this might also include spiced wine and honeyed wine. Undiluted was better. Beer and mead were almost certainly acceptable offerings to Germanic Gods.
• Milk (especially to Goddesses).
• Animal sacrifice* and animal sacrifice by proxy by baking cookies or bread in the shape of an animal and offering this instead. Sheep, pigs and cattle were the most common sacrificial animals in ancient times. However, note that, following the Roman tradition of Numa, bloodless offerings were in fact most traditional. Wheat, salt, salted bread, sacrificial cakes/pastries (eg, see this recipe for Cato's libum), herbs, garlands of flowers, drink-offerings, and then, later, incense and saffron, were the most typical ancient offerings in Rome (Plutarch, The Life of Numa and Ovid, Fasti). We also know that bread, meat, onions and milk were traditional offerings to Germanic deities (Ibn Fadlan).
• Votive offerings. Votive offerings are, unlike the offerings listed above, relatively non-perishable. An example of this would be a gift of pearls to Venus.
• Temples and altars, for particularly elaborate offerings add temple/shrine priests/priestesses and/or designated feast/games days.

Roman rites

Traditionally libations to celestial (of the sky) deities were placed into a fire on a raised altar so that their vital essence might rise to the sky; this ritual was normally performed in the day. Offerings to aquatic deities were generally thrown into water. Offerings to chthonic (of the earth) deities were generally poured or placed, using the left hand, into a hole dug into the earth (and then entirely burnt in that place if possible, or buried) while the right hand was held over the fire, or touching the earth, with the palm/s facing down.

Prayers were made with open palms (both hands or the right hand only), fingers were together and stretched slightly backwards. The palm of the right hand (or both hands) faced the presumed abode of the God/s being honoured (eg, the sky for celestial Gods and the ground for chthonic Gods). Hands and clothes were normally required to be clean (the cleaner the better).

Note that in the Roman tradition offerings were made to Janus before other Gods, because he was considered to be the gateway to the divine, while Vesta, Goddess of altar and hearth fire, received the last offering (Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, Bk 2), though Vesta's name might be invoked first at the start of the ritual (Ovid, Fasti, 6.304). The head was usually covered when praying to Roman Gods (notable exceptions to this general rule include Saturn and Hercules, to whom the ritus Graecus applied – note that despite the name the ritus Graecus in fact refered to a style of Roman ritual, which was inspired by, but not identical to, Hellenic rites; it usually involved wearing a laurel wreath and playing music during the ritual, and it might have been desirable to face east when praying).

The kinds of offerings made included incense to Fortuna (Goddess of fortune and luck) and Pax (Goddess of peace), doves to Adonis (God of beauty and desire), cocks to Nox (Goddess of night), donkeys to Priapus (rustic fertility God of livestock, fruit plants and gardens), cows to Salus (Goddess of safety, health and well-being) and geese to the Goddess Isis. Dogs, sheep, incense and wine were traditional offerings to Robigo (Goddess of wheat rust, a fungal disease affecting grain; the purpose of the offerings was to protect against wheat rust), while garlands, cakes, corn, honeycombs, wine, lambs, sheep and suckling pigs were traditional offerings to Terminus (God of boundaries). It was preferable to wear white when sacrificing to Terminus, as well as many other Gods, but when making an offering to Flora (fertility Goddess of flowers and spring, also associated with sexual licentiousness and prostitution) it was traditional to wear brightly coloured clothes.

Germanic rites

We do not know for sure what the intricacies of Germanic rites were historically, but it may be that worship was more likely to be conducted outdoors (although we do know that some temples did exist during the Viking age). Tacitus records that the Germanic people generally "judge it not to be in keeping with the majesty of heavenly beings to confine them within walls", and that instead they "consecrate woods and groves" (Germania). In the Hyndluljod a shrine that pleased Freyja was described as a "high altar of heaped up stones ... reddened ... with fresh cattle-blood" (Elder Edda). Ibn Fadlan describes the Rus place of worship as an outdoor place with "a great wooden post stuck in the ground with a face like that of a man". Around this post were long wooden stakes driven into the ground which had "little figures" in front of them; these were said to be the God's wives and children. Ibn Fadlan stated that a Rus man would bow before the great post, describe who he was and what he wanted divine assistance with before leaving food offerings (bread, meat, milk, onions and either ale or mead). Once the prayer had been answered the man would return with a grander offering in the form of slaughtered sheep or cows, after removing some of the meat to eat with his companions the rest was set before the great wooden post and the heads of the animals hung on the wooden stakes. When night fell and dogs came and ate the meat the pious man took that as a sign that the God had accepted the offering (Ibn Fadlan).

In his Corrector, Burchard of Worms describes Heathen rites that were apparently common in Germany in the early 11th century (Burchard's purpose was to set a standard form of penance for common sins):

“Have you gone to any place to pray other than a church ... to springs, rocks, trees, or crossroads; and have you burned candles or small torches there to venerate that place, have you brought bread or some other offering there, have you eaten there, or sought anything there for the health of the body or the soul [cited in Shinners (ed), Medieval Popular Religion, at 442-443]?”

He also speaks of offerings of knots, bread and herbs, over which incantations were uttered before being hidden in a tree or thrown into crossroads. Burchard's contemporary in England, Wulfstan, wrote that offerings to Odin were made at crossroads and on high hills (cited in Boenig and Emmerson, Anglo-Saxon Spirituality, at 136).

Regarding witchcraft

Generally speaking, Romans and Germanics did not approve of witchcraft. What marked out a witch from a priest, shaman or healer was the individual's desire to exert harmful control over others through magical means, such as by engaging in rites which violate the remains of the dead or seeking to maliciously control spirits. This blog does not deal with the subject of witchcraft, rather it seeks to understand pre-Christian Paganism, based on historical sources, but some (very limited) discussion of witchcraft does exist in the posts I wrote on Trivia of the Crossroads, Freyja and Valkyries. Discussion of magic occurs in a post I wrote on Superstition.

Divinity	Confirmed Ancient Offerings
Apollo  (God of sunlight, truth, prophecy, health, music, archery) Celestial See the Germanic Sol / Sunna.	Nine popana (pastry balls made of soft cheese and flour), nine cakes, nine phthoes (cakes that shrivel when cooked; perhaps like pastils), incense, wine, laurel (include crowns of) Animals: nine female lambs (burnt whole), nine she-goats (burnt whole), bull
Bacchus (may be equated with Liber Pater) (God of viticulture, wine, masculine fertility, spiritual ecstasy/freedom, as well as delusions and madness) Chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Freyr. See the Hellenic Dionysus.	Honey, honey poured on cakes/pastries, ivy Animals: goats
Bona Dea ("The Good Goddess", associated with fertility and the protection of women generally. The title is possibly an honorific for a universal earth Goddess such as Fauna, Terra, Tellus, Ops or possibly even Magna Mater or Vesta) Chthonic See the Germanic Nerthus. See the Hellenic Gaia.	Magna Mater: incense, violets, small change, herbs, white cheese Animals: heifer (Magna Mater), pregnant sow burnt whole (Tellus) Note: note that some ancient rites involving Bona Dea apparently excluded men; however transexuals (male to female) did carry out rites in honour of the Magna Mater
Ceres (Goddess of agriculture, esp. fertile grain crops) Chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Freyja or Gefjun or Nerthus. See the Hellenic Demeter.	Incense, salt, spelt, cakes/pastries, wine, ears of wheat  Animals: sow (especially the entrails) Note: iron or steel were not normally used in rites to Ceres (however bronze was fine). Offerings were optimised if premised with 9 days of fasting and abstinence. White was worn
Diana (Goddess of the moon, the hunt, wild animals, wild places such as forests, groves and mountains, virginity, easy childbirth) Celestial  See the Germanic Skadi. See the Hellenic Artemis.	Incense, pine tree, locks of hair Animals: deer, blood of wild boar, cattle Note: it was optimal to be dressed in white when making one's offering
Dii familiares (household deities; guardians of the home and family, including the Lares and the Penates) Chthonic See the Germanic Tomte / Nisse.	Food plates, honey, honeycomb, honey cakes/pastries, grapes, garlands, wreathes of wheat, crowns made of flowers, corn/grain (wheat, barley and/or millet), rosemary, myrtle, coins, precious personal items Animals: lamb (Lares & Penates), calves (Lares), pigs (Lares)
Faunus (horned God of flocks, woodland, fields, animals, sex and fertility) Chthonic See the Germanic Freyr. See the Hellenic Pan.	Wine, sweet and fragrant herbs Animals: goat
Janus (God of beginnings, endings, transitions and doors) Celestial See (possibly) the Germanic Heimdall.	Incense, wine, cakes/pastries (strues) Note: the writings of Ovid and Cicero suggest that Vesta was addressed first in Roman rituals, while Janus, as the gateway to the divine, received the first offering (Vesta received the last)
Juno (Goddess of married women, pregnant women, women giving birth and motherhood) Celestial See the Germanic Frigg. See the Hellenic Hera.	Incense, wine (esp, x 3),cakes/pastries (esp, x 3), silver gifts Animals: cow (burnt whole), cattle (especially white)
Jupiter (or Jove) (God of the sky, storms, lightning and thunder) Celestial See the Germanic Thor. See the Hellenic Zeus.	Incense, cinnamon, wine, cakes/pastries (fertum and far; esp. when made with wheat and salt), fruit, gold & silver (presumably for Jupiter's temple or shrine), golden thunderbolt Animals: bull (burnt whole), gelded sheep, ox Note: offerings of white bull and ox with gilded horns were especially appropriate
Manes (kindly/protective spirits of the dead, esp ancestors – contrast to Lemures and Larvae) Chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Elves.	Incense, wine, salted corn/wheat, bread/wheat soaked in wine and violets Note: as for Lemures (fearsome dead / hungry ghosts) – see Ovid's Fasti book V, 9 May
Mars (God of war, military valour, warding off hostility) Celestial and chthonic  See the Germanic Tyr. See the Hellenic Ares.	Spelt, bacon fat, meat, wine Note: it was preferable to include iron in rites to Mars; women were excluded from at least some ancient rites involving Mars (see Cato, On Agriculture)
Mercury (or Mercurius) (God of financial gain, trade, travel, communication, eloquence, cunning, athletics, deliverer of spirits to the afterlife/psychopomp, deliverer of dreams) Celestial and chthonic See the Germanic Odin. See the Hellenic Hermes.	Incense Animals: ox
Minerva (Goddess of intellect, wisdom, education, craftsmanship, artisans, war (strategy), medicine, doctors) Celestial See the Germanic Odin. See the Hellenic Athena.	Silver gifts and olives Animals: ox cow with gilt horns, cow Varro records that goats were not a suitable offering to Minerva
Neptune (or Neptunus) (God of all forms of water, horses and horseracing) Aquatic See the Germanic Njord or Aegir. See the Hellenic Poseidon.	White wine (poured into the sea), blood, silver Animals: bull (especially the entrails)  Note: offerings of white bull dressed in dark blue ribbons were especially appropriate
Pales  (Deity of shepherds, flocks and livestock)	Rosemary, pine, laurel, millet cake/bread and milk
Trivia (Goddess of the triple crossroads, the stygian night and magic) Chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Freyja or Gullveig. See the Hellenic Hecate.	Animals: dogs Note: offerings to Trivia were optimally made during the deepest hours of night at three way crossroads; alternately, prayers were uttered over offerings before throwing them into crossroads
Venus (Goddess of love, relationships, pleasure, beauty, charm and fertility) Celestial and chthonic See the Germanic Freyja. See the Hellenic Aphrodite.	Incense, wine, mint, myrtle, roses, garlands, glistening morsels of meat (ie, fatty morsels of meat?) Animals: doves, horned ram, bull Note: it was ideal to be dressed in white when making the offering
Vesta (Goddess of hearth fire and home, protector of the home and of the family that lives there) Celestial and chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Thor. See the Hellenic Hestia.	Food plates Note: Ovid says Tellus and Vesta are the same Goddess, thus offerings to Vesta might have been the same as those to Tellus (eg, pregnant sow burnt whole). The writings of Ovid and Cicero suggest that Vesta should be addressed first in Roman rituals, while Janus, opener of the way, received the first offering (and Vesta received the last)
Vulcan (or Volcanus) (God of beneficial and hindering fire, smithery and volcanoes) Celestial and chthonic See (possibly) the Germanic Thor. See the Hellenic Hephaestus.	Incense, boughs (thrown into a bonfire?) Animals: small fish thrown into fire, Note: invoking his name three times and making offerings in threes was recommended

 

* Animals, who came forward peacefully and without signs of distress (this implied acquiescence was considered crucial), were sacrificed/slaughtered in honour of a particular God, the entrails would then be burnt as a specific offering and the flesh eaten by the party sacrificing – thus a meal was shared with the Gods. In an age where many people owned their own livestock, and slaughtered and butchered the animals themselves, blood sacrifices would have seemed a lot more natural than it does for contemporary supermarket shoppers. The mass slaughter that occurs in industrialised abattoirs today simply did not exist in the ancient and medieval period, so the ethics of killing animals between then and now are distinctly different – what goes on in contemporary slaughterhouses is a world away from the much less frequent and highly ritualised animal sacrifices of pre-Christian Europe.

By M' Sentia Figula (aka Freki), find me at neo polytheist