Imagining the Gods

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Apollo, God of light and the sun, healing (or disease), music (especially stringed instruments), poetry, archery and prophecy

"Apollo" by Mengs (18th century)

Pagan Offerings to the Gods

"Evocation" by A Rothaug (b. 1870)

Here follows a list of possible offerings to various divine beings. This list is neither comprehensive nor indisputably correct – if in doubt the following may be acceptable offerings:

• Food – can be symbolically offered on a plate before an image or symbol of a deity, or burnt in a ritual fire, or left in a sacred location, or hidden in a sacred tree, or thrown into sacred water or onto crossroads.

• Animal sacrifice by proxy.* You can perform an animal sacrifice by proxy by baking cookies or bread in the shape of an animal and offering this instead. Sheep, pigs and cattle were the most common sacrificial animals in ancient times. However, note that, following the Roman tradition of Numa, bloodless offerings are in fact most traditional. Wheat, salt, salted bread, sacrificial cakes/pastries (eg, see this recipe for Cato's libum), herbs, garlands of flowers, drink-offerings, and then, later, incense and saffron, were the most typical ancient offerings in Rome (Plutarch, The Life of Numa and Ovid, Fasti). We also know that bread, meat, onions and milk are traditional offerings to Germanic deities (Ibn Fadlan). Another substitute for animal sacrifice is to offer wine from a bottle with a cork instead of a screw top. If you discover that the wine is "corked" then this may be viewed as being equivalent to opening up the innards of a sacrificed animal and discovering irregularities (which is of course a sign that the offering has been rejected; thus necessitating repeating the ritual with a fresh offering). 

• Fire – for a simple or preliminary show of reverence light a candle in a sacred location.

• Incense (note that frankincense was the most popular incense used in ritual offerings in ancient Rome). For an in depth look at incense as an offering, including issues relating to health, see my post on Incense – Offerings to the Gods.

• Aromatic herbs (juniper, laurel, rosemary, thyme, etc). 

• Flowers.

• Spices, especially Indian spices (ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, cumin, saffron, etc).

• Wine, this may also include spiced wine and honeyed wine. Avoid diluting wine. Note that beer and mead are almost certainly acceptable offerings to Germanic Gods.

• Milk (especially to Goddesses) but note that there are a range of ethical issues surrounding contemporary dairy farming which may serve to spiritually contaminate, or profane, the product. Taking care to establish that dairy offerings come from ethically run farms is recommended but ultimately this is a matter of personal discretion. 

• Votive offerings. Votive offerings are, unlike the offerings listed above, relatively non-perishable. An example of this would be a gift of pearls to Venus. 

• Temples and altars, for particularly elaborate offerings add temple/shrine priests/priestesses and/or designated feast/games days.

Roman rites

If it is possible to find a sacred place outdoors to make offerings this is ideal. Traditionally libations to celestial (of the sky) deities are placed into a fire on a raised altar so that their vital essence might rise to the sky; this ritual should be performed in the day (compare to the Hindu yajna). Offerings to aquatic deities are generally thrown into water. Offerings to chthonic (of the earth) deities are generally poured or placed, using the left hand, into a hole dug into the earth (and then entirely burnt in that place if possible, or buried) while the right hand is held over the fire, or touching the earth, with the palm/s facing down. 

Prayers can be made with open palms (both hands or the right hand only), fingers together and stretched slightly backwards. The palm of the right hand (or both hands) should be facing the presumed abode of the God/s being honoured (eg, the sky for celestial Gods and the ground for chthonic Gods). Hands and clothes should normally be clean (the cleaner you are the better). See this post for more on Pagan prayer.

Note that in the Roman tradition offerings are made to Janus before other Gods, because he is the gateway to the divine, while Vesta, Goddess of altar and hearth fire, receives the last offering (Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, Bk 2), though Vesta's name may be invoked first at the start of the ritual (Ovid, Fasti, 6.304). The head is usually covered when praying to Roman Gods (notable exceptions to this general rule include Saturn and Hercules, to whom the ritus Graecus applies – note that despite the name the ritus Graecus in fact refers to a style of Roman ritual, which is inspired by, but not identical to, Hellenic rites; it usually involves wearing a laurel wreath and playing music during the ritual), and it may be desirable to face east when praying. 

Germanic rites
We do not know for sure what the intricacies of Germanic rites were historically, but it may be that worship was more likely to be conducted outdoors (although we do know that some temples did exist during the Viking age). Tacitus records that the Germanic people generally "judge it not to be in keeping with the majesty of heavenly beings to confine them within walls", and that instead they "consecrate woods and groves" (Germania). In the Hyndluljod a shrine that pleases Freyja is described as a "high altar of heaped up stones ... reddened ... with fresh cattle-blood" (Elder Edda). Ibn Fadlan describes the Rus place of worship as an outdoor place with "a great wooden post stuck in the ground with a face like that of a man". Around this post were long wooden stakes driven into the ground which had "little figures" in front of them; these were said to be the God's wives and children. Ibn Fadlan stated that a Rus man would bow before the great post, describe who he was and what he wanted divine assistance with before leaving food offerings (bread, meat, milk, onions and either ale or mead). Once the prayer had been answered the man would return with a grander offering in the form of slaughtered sheep or cows, after removing some of the meat to eat with his companions the rest was set before the great wooden post and the heads of the animals hung on the wooden stakes. When night fell and dogs came and ate the meat the pious man took that as a sign that the God had accepted the offering (Ibn Fadlan).

In his Corrector, Burchard of Worms describes Heathen rites that were apparently common in Germany in the early 11th century (Burchard's purpose was to set a standard form of penance for common sins):

“Have you gone to any place to pray other than a church ... to springs, rocks, trees, or crossroads; and have you burned candles or small torches there to venerate that place, have you brought bread or some other offering there, have you eaten there, or sought anything there for the health of the body or the soul [cited in Shinners (ed), Medieval Popular Religion, at 442-443]?”

He also speaks of offerings of knots, bread and herbs, over which incantations are uttered before being hidden in a tree or thrown into crossroads. Burchard's contemporary in England, Wulfstan, wrote that offerings to Odin were made at crossroads and on high hills (cited in Boenig and Emmerson, Anglo-Saxon Spirituality, at 136).

For more inspiration, see Germanic divination (Runes).

Intent and expectations
Just because one has made an offering does not mean one has obtained a favour. The Gods are not merchants, or prostitutes who sell their favours. They favour whoever they will, and we cannot bribe them to do anything; they likely have little use for our offerings in any case. Offerings signal both our understanding that we cannot get something for nothing as well as our respect for their divinity. Ritual offerings are a means of (attempted) communication, or even a divine conversation, and never a payment for services bought.

Pagan Prayer

Prayer to ask or to thank 

A model with the head covered in a way that suits
most Roman rites. Image: "Lycinna" by Goward (1903)

If not a regular, household ritual (ie, it is not in honour of household divinities) prayers and offerings are generally best performed outdoors under an open sky, preferably in a place which seems to be associated with the Deity. Creating a shrine, of either a temporary or permanent nature, is a possibility when a sacred location cannot be identified. 

It is important to prepare for rituals. Some of the things you may want to consider are as follows (all that follows relates primarily to Roman rites):

1. Determining what it is that you want, and thus who are the appropriate Deities to supplicate. To identify the Deity the following (hyperlinked) posts may be helpful: Contemporary Visions of the Divine and A Long List of Deities.
2. Determining whether the Deity to supplicate is primarily celestial (of the sky), aquatic (of water) or chthonic (of the earth). If celestial, normally a ritual fire should be lit and offerings burnt in this fire. The ritual should normally be performed in the day, but not if it is windy. Safety dictates that you bring a fire blanket or jug of water in case the fire becomes unsafe. If aquatic, normally offerings will be poured or thrown into the body of water most close to the Deity (eg, if Neptune, the ocean; if a river spirit, in the river). If chthonic, normally offerings will be poured into the earth or a pit is dug into which offerings are placed, such offerings may be burnt whole in that place or merely buried. Alternately (a) food, liquid or plant offerings can be symbolically placed on a plate before an image or object associated with the Deity; (b) incense may be burnt at the Deity’s shrine; (c) ornaments, garlands or other objects may be placed around the statue of the Deity; (d) offerings specific to the Deity may be made – embroidery honours Minerva; smithing honours Vulcan; music honours Apollo; eloquent prose honours Mercury; the very act of drinking wine may honour Bacchus; sexual acts may honour fertility Deities, and so on. See Pagan Offerings to the Gods for more on suitable offerings. 
3. Note that in the Roman tradition offerings are normally made to Janus before other Gods, because he is the gateway to the divine, while Vesta, Goddess of altar and hearth fire, receives the last offering (Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods), though Vesta's name may be invoked first at the start of the ritual (Ovid, Fasti). Arguably, Vesta need not be invoked if the ritual involves no fire.
4. It is advisable to prepare what you will do and say so that the ritual does not become fumbling or ineffective. Note that you should speak in a clear voice; stumbling over words in the midst of a ritual is not desirable and may even be regarded as inauspicious. It is perfectly fine to read from a prepared script during the ritual – in fact this may be preferable.
5. Hands and clothes should be clean (the cleaner you are the better), normally white clothes will preferable, and the head is usually covered when praying to Roman Gods (notable exceptions to this general rule include Saturn and Hercules, to whom the ritus Graecus applies – note that despite the name the ritus Graecus in fact refers to a style of Roman ritual, which is inspired by, but not identical to, Hellenic rites; it may involve wearing a laurel wreath). You do not need to wear a toga  (traditionally a fold of the toga would be placed over the head) – a hoodie with the hood up is sufficient. Otherwise a scarf or shawl. Only the back of the head needs covering; the greater part of the arms and neck can be left exposed.
6. Prayers should be made with open palms (both hands or the right hand only), fingers together and stretched slightly backwards. The palm of the right hand (or both hands) should be facing the presumed abode of the God/s being honoured (eg, the sky for celestial Gods and the ground for chthonic Gods) or at an image of the God or shrine to the God.

Some tips for a small, outdoor fire ceremony (feel free to disregard; this is tailored for a city dweller to perform on an apartment balcony): before starting the fire line the bowl/container in which the flame will burn with aluminium foil and place a small tea light in the middle. Light the candle then place very small broken up twigs (up to 2 inches long) and dried leaves over the flame. Do not place too much fuel in the bowl as the fire will grow too large. Keep a large jug of water handy. Do not perform this ceremony on a windy day.

The following words are the kind of things you might say during Roman rites, but of course your own prayers might be worded completely differently. The key words may include (1) correct identification of the God you wish to honour (hence the name of the Deity and a description of their domain), (2) a clear statement of what you are praying for, and (3) a clear description of what offerings you are making or will make should your prayer be answered. 

Raw Paganism

Ouroboros from a Byzantine manuscript (1478)

To me, part of the appeal of Pagan practice is the potential link it gives one to ancient or even pre-historical spirituality – to something raw, to something fundamental and continuing in the human spiritual process. The Religio Romana interests me partly because I see it as an ancient European religion about which we are reliably informed – much of the source material on Roman Paganism existing today was written by Pagans writing in a Pagan world, but, of course, there are other ways we can inform ourselves about authentically ancient spiritual practices and that is by looking to that which is common to a multitude of cultures and timelines – as a child of Europe I am naturally interested in the beliefs of the Indo-Europeans, from whom I am (at least partly) descended. Common themes in their belief systems include/d:

• The deification of natural forces such as the sky, the dawn, rivers, the sea, the sun, the moon, spirits of nature (nymphs) and so on.
• Folklore involving a battle with a serpent which may represent a battle between order and chaos (eg, Hercules and the hydra; Thor and the Midgard serpent; Krishna and Kaliya).
• Cyclic myths (eg, of the seasons).

Salubrious Food

Gods of Healthy Eating

There are a number of significant Roman Gods of food including:

• Ceres, Goddess of agriculture, especially regarding grain – which today we associate with, inter alia, wheat, barley, rye, oats, maize and rice. In ancient times she was mostly associated with wheat (Romans did not eat maize or rice); bread being perhaps the most important food in ancient Rome. Ceres was one of fifteen Roman deities who had an official cult, including a designated flamen (priest). Her festival, the Cerealia, was celebrated in April.

The Question of Faith

"A Priestess"
by J W Godward (1894)

I have an ambivalent attitude to faith. When, for a number of years, I was more or less a follower of Buddhism the subject of divine beings would occasionally surface and the Buddhist view seemed to be that there are divine beings (Devas – note that this word is cognate with the Latin word Deus), who live in something like what we would call heaven but that they are not immortal (though many Devas live much longer lives than humans), they did not create the world, they are not omniscient and they are not omnipotent, however some devas are of great moral authority and prestige and thus deserving of a high degree of respect. According to the Pali canon, the Buddha stated that making offerings to the devas is noble and an example of wealth gone to good use. Ancient Greeks and Romans were also more or less familiar with this perspective as it is not so very different from the Epicurean perspective on the Gods – though I would not go so far, as Epicurus did, as to say that the Gods do not concern themselves at all with human beings, as this is something we cannot know.  

It follows, from this quasi-Buddhist approach to which I am heir, that divine beings are not in need of our private or collective faith in them, although they are not therefore averse or indifferent to reverential treatment. For me there is a difference between respectful reverence and faith. I cannot believe that any divine being worth worshipping could be so appallingly narcissistic as to require my unwavering faith and trust in his or her existence. I confess that I do not unwaveringly believe in Paganism. I do have doubts - I sometimes think that, like so many religious beliefs, Paganism is a fantasy made up by humans who cannot cope with life being no more than sound and fury, signifying nothing. As Camus wrote in The Myth of Sisyphus:

Pagan Altar

"The Household Gods" by J W Waterhouse (1880)

My altar (which may also be called a shrine or a Lararium*) tends to be changed around a fair bit from month to month but there are a few core features (as to the rituals performed at my altar see this post) – the core features are:

• a designated space for the shrine itself - in my case I use the entire top of a cabinet in the bedroom. 
• a candle holder (compare to a lucerna).
• an incense burner (compare to a turibulum).
• a container in which to keep incense (compare to an acerra).
• a small plate on which to place food offerings (compare to a patera).
• a small glass in which to place liquid offerings (compare to a gutus).
• a container for salt (compare to a salinum).

Daily Pagan Ritual

"The Magic Circle" by J W Waterhouse (1886)

I generally practice this ritual every day and make up for days I missed by burning additional incense to "all benevolent divine beings" and giving additional food offerings to "local spirits" and "spirits of the household". I use these vague descriptors so to capture all possible Gods to whom I should be addressing my prayers. If you want to be more personal you might light the incense in honour of specific Gods whom you wish to honour (I admit that I am anxious not to offend any Gods by omission so I hesitate to be specific, though perhaps this is unduly superstitious).* You might also make a food and/or drink offering to the Lares and Penates. However, I prefer to use plain English, hence the all inclusive "spirits of the household" and "local spirits".

The ritual is performed at my household shrine/altar before the main meal of the day (dinner in my case). It may also be performed at the start of the day.

The head should be covered (a scarf over one's head, or the hood up if I am wearing a hoodie) and hands should be clean.